01/GenerationsHowtheComputerBecameOurCultureMachine/MultipleHistoriesMultipleChoices/Thesecretwarbetweendownloadinganduploadingunimodernisminfotriagepowerandplayinformationalismandstickymediaaretwentyfirstcenturyissuesbuttheyhavearichanddeeppa/st/Thecomputeranditsnetworksarethemostcomplicatedmachinesthathumanshaveeverconstructed/Theirhistoryisnotaneasyonetorecordtyingtogetherasitdoesabstrusemathemati
02/cscomplexengineeringfortunesmadeandlostandarigorousaccountingofthecomputerstransf/ormativepowersoverhowweliveworkandplay/Yetwerequireanunderstandingofhowthecomputerdevelopedasitdidifwearetounderstandtheargumentsthroughouttherestofthebook/Thismeansthatwehavetoberuthlesslyselectiveinconstructingahistorytosuitourpurposescho/osingcomprehensibilityovercomprehensiveness/InthesectionsthatfollowItracetheu
03/psanddownofsimulationandparticipationthroughsixdiscretegenerationsofcomputing/Iofferapolemicalaccountaboutthedevelopmentofanidealofcomputingtrackingwhattheevolutio/narybiologistRichardDawkinscallsmemestheintellectualequivalentofgenesorselfreplicatingideas/Thepagesthatfollowarefilledwithnarrativesaboutpeoplewhobecomeinfectedwithmemesaboutthecomputerasanessentialculturemachine/Thetwomemescentraltoth
04/edev/elopmentofthecomputerasaculturemachinearesimulationandparticipationandtrackingtheirinterplayiskeytodevelopingthesehistoricalnarratives/Thesememesusuallyprecededthetechnologyandthoseinfectedthenspentyearsdevelopingcomputersandsystemstobringt/heseessencesintoexistencewitheachgenerationbuildingonorchallengingthelast/Icharacterizethefirstgenerationasthepatriarchshererepresentedbytheidiosyncraticv
05/isionary/bureaucrat/scientistsVannevarBushandJCRLickliderwhoestablishthefoundingmemesi/ntheearlyyearsafterWorldWarIIthroughtheearly1960s/TheyarefollowedinturnbythePlutocratsThomasWatsonSrandThomasWatsonJrofIBMwhomakeabusinessoutofcomputingcentralizingtheoperationsintotopdownbureaucraciesduringthe1950sand1960s/Inreactiontotheb/uttoneddownallbusinessattitudesofthePlutocratstheAquariansofthe1960sand1
06/970speoplelikeDouglasEnglebartandAlanKayexpandonthemoreopenendedideasofthePatriarchsanddeveloptheparadigmofvisualpersonalizednetworkedcomputing/Inthe1980sand1990stheHus/tlersMicrosoftsBillGatesandApplesSteveJobscommodifythispersonalizedvisionputtingadistinctiveneweconomystamponcomputing/BuildingontheinstalledbaseofalltheseusersasthenewmillenniumloomstheHostsWorldWideWebinventorTimBernersLeeandopen
07/sourcegur/uLinusTorvaldslinkthesedisparatepersonalmachinesintoahugewebconcentratingoncommunicationasmuchastechnologypushingparticipationtothenextlevel/ThesixthgenerationthatoftheSearchersnamedafterbuthardlylimitedtoLarryPageandSergeyBrinofGooglethese/archalgorithmthatbecameacompanyandthenaverbaggregatedsomuchinformationandsomanyexperiencesthattheyrenderedsimulationandparticipationubiquitous/Therea
08/rethreedefaultwaysoftellingthehistoryofcomputingandtheinterestingthingisthatpeoplerarelyten/dtoblendthenarratives/Thereisthetechnicalandscientifichistoryofcomputingwhichisfranklytheleastunderstoodanddisseminated/ThisisthestoryofalgorithmsandcircuitdiagramstubesthatbecametransistorsandlaboratoriesatuniversitieslikeMITandStanfordasw/ellascompanieslikeIBMandATT/Withoutthisworktherewouldbenosoftwareno
09/computersatallbutthedetailsaretechnicalandthoseinvolvedarefarfromthespotlight/Thisisatechnographyawrittenrecordofthetechnologycomposedinthemainforexperts/Thenthereisthestory/thatmostpeopleknow/Thatisthestoryaboutfortunesmadeandlost/DuringandafterthegreatInternetbubbleofthe1990stherewereinstanthistorymachinesforthesocalledneweconomymagazineslikeBusiness20andFastCompanythatreportedontheupsanddownsof
10/thegeekgodsand/theirwealthcreation/HerearethetalesofMicrosoftstockboughtattwentydollarsandsoldattwothousandBillHewlettandDavePackardworkingintheirrentedPaloAltogarageRossPerotquittingIBMtofoundComputerDataSystemsinTexasJeffBezosopeninganonlinebookstorenam/ingitafterthelargestriverintheworldandthengettingonthecoverofTimemagazineastheCEOofAmazon/comandMarkZuckerbergtransformingtheHarvardUniversityfi
11/rstyearstudentlistingserviceintoFacebookthedominantandmostvaluablesocialmediasiteintheworld/Thes/earethestoriesthathavesustainedthebulkofpeoplesinterestsinthehistoryofcomputing/Thisisthehistoryofcomputingasplutographystoriesaboutmoney/Thereisanothersmallbutgrowingstrainthatlocatesthetransformationsofourworldintheworkofcomputingsvisiona/ries/AsfarbackasHowardRheingoldsToolsforThoughtwritteninthemid
12/1980stherehasbeenanalternativenarrativefeaturingpeopleliketheirrepressiblehypertextimpresarioTedNelsonandevendrugguruturnedcyberpunditTimothyLearyanintellectualshistoryofcomputin/g/Forthescholarsstudyinghypertextpoetrythestudentsinnewmediadepartmentsandthosewithaculturalinterestincomputingthesearestoriesofsecularsaintsahagiographyofsorts/Togettoaworkableunderstandingofthehistoryoftheculturemachine
13/weneedtobraidtheset/hreestrandslookingatprogrammersmillionairesanddreamers/Thatthesestrandscanallcombineinthestoryofonepersononemachineorevenonecompanyisalltothegood/TheWarriorsAPrehistory/LifewassimplebeforeWorldWarII/Afterthatwehadsystems/RearAdmiralGraceHop/per/ThequestiontobeginwithisnotWhatisacomputer/butratherWhoisacomputer/becausecomputerswerehumansfirstandmachinessecond/Computerswerepeople
14/usuallywomenwhocomputednumberstabulatedresultsandpublishedlistsormatriceswiththeresults/Theyworkedfor/nineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturybusinessesandgovernmentministriesandlaidthegroundworkforthedatadrivenstatisticallychartednumericallymarkedworldinwhichwenowlive/ThedemandforinformationduringWorldWarIIpushedthehumancomputerspasttheircapacit/ytoproducewhatwasneededforthewareffortandnewsystemswerere
15/quired/ThemilitaryacronymC3Istandsforcommandcontrolcommunicationsandintelligence/TwentiethcenturywarfareprovedoverandoveragainthatthesidewithsuperiorC3Iwins/UnlikeWorldWarIwhichwaspri/marilyaEuropeanconflictthatspilledoverintosomeofitsimmediateneighborsintheMiddleEastandNorthAfricaandinvolvingtheparticipationofformerBritishcoloniesliketheUnitedStatesCanadaandAustraliaasalliesWorldWarIIreallywasagl
16/obalconflictwithbattlesn/otjustinEuropebutalsoacrossAfricatheSovietUnionChinaJapanvastareasofthePacificandevenreachingtheUnitedStateswiththebombingofPearlHarbor/Itwasawarfoughtacrosstwentyfourtimezonesonlandbyseaunderwaterandintheairandconcludedwiththemostfearsomet/echnologicallycomplexweaponeverinventedtheatomicbomb/IntegratingalltheinformationtowageWorldWarIIwassimplybeyondthecapacityofhumancomp
17/uters/Therewastoomuchincomingdataandthedemandforaccurateformattedandtimelyinformationwasliterallyoneoflife/anddeath/Thefirstorderofbusinessinthedevelopmentofcomputersasmachineswasthesimulationofcomputersaspeople/TheUSgovernmentsupportedthedevelopmentofmechanicalmeanstodowhatthehumancomputershadbeendoinguptothatpoint/Thedrivingneedherewasforballi/stictables/Alargecalibergunormissilelauncherisaffect
18/edbyweatherconditionstheprojectileschargethetargetsdistancethegunselevationanddozensofotherfactors/IfthewareffortwastoextenditsC3Ianddominatethebattlefieldeachdifferentkindofgunhadtohavedi/fferentballisticchartscalculatedforit/ThesuccessoftheC3Iinitiativeswereobviouslythemilitarysfirstandforemostobjectivesduringthewarandifthismeantreplacingthewhowiththewhatofcomputingsobeit/Buttherewereafewkeypeop
19/leduringtheconflictwhosawthat/thepowersofcomputingifspreadwiderthanthelaboratoryandthewarroomwouldbeahugebenefittohumanity/Bymovingtowardthegoalofparticipationandmeldingittosimulationtheywereabletoshiftthefocusfromthewhatbacktothewhoagain/ThesewerethePatriarchs/ThePatri/archsVannevarBushandJCRLicklider/Theworldhasarrivedatanageofcheapcomplexdevicesofgreatreliabilityandsomethingisboundtocomeofit/Va
20/nnevarBush/Peopletendtooverestimatewhatcanbedoneinoneyearandunderestimatewhatcanbedoneinfivetotenyears/JCRLickl/ider/TherearemanymathematiciansearlycomputerscientistsandengineerswhodeservetobeconsideredpartofthefirstgenerationofpioneeringPatriarchs/TheyincludeAlanTuringalreadydiscussedinchapter2mathematicianandquantumtheoristJohnvonNeumanncybernetici/stNorbertWienerinformationtheoristClaudeShannon
21/andcomputerarchitectsliketheGermanKonradZuseandAmericansJ/PresperEckertandJohnMauchlywhodevelopedENIACtheroomsizedmachineattheUniversityofPennsylvaniathatwerecognizeasthefirstgeneralpurposeelec/troniccomputer/ThesewerethePatriarchswhosettheparametersforcomputersciencelayingouttheissuesforsoftwaredevelopmentbuildingtheoriginalarchitecturesforhardwareandcreatingtheculturesofcomputerscienceandenginee
22/ring/Theydeservebookshelvesofcover/ageandthepastdecadeorsohasseenanexplosionofpublishingaboutthemwithbiographiesandcriticalassessmentscomingoutonmanymajorfigures/HerethoughIconcentrateonjusttwoVannevarBushandJCRLicklider/BushsbiographyissubtitledEngineeroftheAmericanCenturya/nditisnotabadestimateoftheinfluencethatBushhadonthecultureandorganizationofscientificresearchinthesecondhalfoftheAmericancen
23/tury/DuringWorldWarIIPresidentFranklinD/RooseveltappointedBushashisdirectorofscientificresearchanddevelopmentandinth/atpositionBushradicallychangedthecultureatnotonlyMITwherehehadbeenvicepresidentanddeanofengineeringbutalsoothermajorresearchuniversitiesacrossthecountry/Bushsolidifiedtheintertwiningofuniversitiesandthemilitaryduringandafterthewar/Priortohi/seffortsresearchanddevelopmentintowarmakin
24/gtechnologieswerehousedinmilitaryinstitutions/AfterBushsconcertedpushtheseeffortsshiftedtolaboratoriesbasedonacademiccampuses/Themilitarywouldbeguaranteedtheresearchinfrastructurenecessaryforwagingt/echnologicallyandinformationallycomplexairandballisticmissileconflictsandthepublicatleastintheorywouldbenefitfromasteadystreamofsupportforbasicscientificresearchandassociatednonmilitaryspinofftechnolog
25/ies/Thespinoffsfromthesemilitaryfundedr/esearchanddevelopmentuniversityprojectsspurredthedevelopmentofRoute128outsideBostonhometocompanieslikeRaytheonandtheDigitalEquipmentCorporationwhichwasinturnthemodelforSiliconValleywhereStanfordsengineeringandcomputersciencedepartmentsledto/everythingfromHewlettPackardtoInteltoYahootoGoogle/ButallofthisintertwiningofknowledgeanddestructionhadanimpactonthePat
26/riarchsthinking/Bushinparticularwantedtousethenewtechnologiestoimproveourcapacitytoprocessandunderstandinformation/InAsWe/MayThinkanarticlepublishedintheAtlanticMonthlyjustafterthewarendedin1945BushwroteaboutanimaginarymachinethathecalledtheMemexwhichsimulatedthehumanbrainscapacitiesforassociativethinking/Bushsarticleremainsanamazingreadalltheseyearslater/Itof/fersacapsulehistoryofcomputingorrathe
27/rprecomputingdiscussingGottfriedLeibnizsmechanicalcalculatorsandCharlesBabbagesdifferenceengineandexploresinformationoverloadrememberthiswas1945imaginingafullymultimediatedfutureinvestigatorwearingrecord/ingtechnologiesthatdatetimestampandsynchronizebothresearchfindingsandobservations/ButitwasBushsdetaileddescriptionoftheMemexshortformemoryextenderthatservesasanoriginalmemeforthecomputerasculturem
28/achine/TheMemexproposedusingmicrofilmtechnol/ogytoallowitsuserstotrackdownwhattheywerelookingforandthencreateassociativelinksbetweentheseinformationnodesbothfortheirownuseandtheuseofothers/Thisattentiontotheassociativemodeofmeaningmakinghasinfluencedthedesignersofhyperlinkingsystemsfo/rmorethanhalfacentury/ThatBushwasproposingananalogmechanicaldeviceusingchemicalphotographyasitsbasiswasnotlimiting
29/foreitherBushorthosewhofollowedhim/AsBushwrotesoprescientlyItwouldbeabravemanwhowouldpredictthatsuchaprocesswillalwaysremaincl/umsyslowandfaultyindetail/ThattheMemexwasbasedintechnologiesthatmightneverhaveactuallyworkedandthatdigitalratherthananalogcomputingturnedouttobetherealfutureisirrelevant/WhatisimportantforourmemequestisthatBushisconsideredthefoundationalfig/ureforhypertextandhisworkinspire
30/dgenerationsofcomputerscientists/ItisalsoimportanttoseeBushspromotionoftheMemexasawaytotransformthedeathdealingtechnologiesofWorldWarIIintosomethingbeneficialtoallofhumankindandsomethingthatexpandedthepowerof/theseideasbeyondthetinytechnicalandmilitarycommunitiesthatwerethenusingthem/LikeJRobertOppenheimerdirectoroftheManhattanProjectBushwaspartofagenerationofscientistswhoweremoreheavilyinvolvedin
31/thedevelopmentofweaponsofmassdestructionthananyot/herpreviousonetothem/AlbertEinsteinagenerationolderstoodatanOlympiandistancefromthedestructioncausedbyatomicenergybecomingasecularsaintofgeniuswhileOppenheimerwhohadbeenoneofthearchitectsofthebombbecameincreasinglydespondentaboutthehumancap/acityforselfdestruction/BushlikeOppenheimerhadbeenactivelyinvolvedinthewareffort/Hehadbeeninstrumentalinthest
32/rategicplanningforthefirebombingofJapanandtheoverallarchitectureoftheassaultonAxisindustrialsites/InotherwordsformonthaftermonthBus/hhadbeenapplyingeverythingthatheknewaboutsystemstheorytotheutterdestructionofhumanbeingsandtheirworks/ThathisfirstpublicstatementafterthewarshouldbeabouttheMemexisastirringexampleofthePatriarchssdichotomies/ThesecondPatriarchJCRLicklidertho/ughbarelyrememberedtodaynot
33/onlycontributedtothedreamofsimulationandparticipationinhisownworkhealsodedicatedhimselftonurturingtheworkofotherstowardthisdream/HedrewmuchfromhisrelationshipwithBushwhohadbeenthemostpoliticallypowerfulPatriarch/L/ickliderwhomeveryonecalledLickwasanexperimentalpsychologistworkingwithsoundwhenhestartedoutatMITinthe1930s/Likesomanyofhispeershejoinedthewareffortinhiscaseconcentratingonsonarwhichledin
34/turntoaninterestinlargescaledataanalysis/Thispiquedhis/interestincomputersandinparticularhebecameobsessedwiththequestionofwhycomputerscouldnotbemorelikeotherexperimentalapparatuseswhichreactinrealtimetotheresearchersinputs/InotherwordsLickliderwaslookingforasimulationoftherelationshipthatabiolo/gisthaswithamicroscopeoranartisthaswithapaletteheenvisionedthecomputerfunctioninginpartnershipwithitsuse
35/rindeedoneofhismostfamouspaperswastitledManComputerSymbiosis1960/Thiswasaradicalnotioninaneraofslowmachines/WhatthissymbiosisimpliedtoLi/ckliderwasthatusersneedednotjustapersonalrelationshiptotheirmachinesbutpersonalcomputersaswell/Thiswasaradicalstanceinthe1940sand1950swhenroomsizedmainframecomputerswerethenormandtheideaoftimesharingthatistosaydifferentuserssubmittingtheirp/roblemstothemainframet
36/obeworkedoutsimultaneouslywasconsideredfarout/Licklidersvisionofparticipationwentbeyondtimesharingonlargemainframesandevolvedintowhatwasthenafringeconceptthateachpersonwouldhavetheirowncomputer/LikesomanyofthePatriarch/smostinnovativevisionsthisonetookdecadestocometofruition/SimilartohismentorBushLickliderbalancedhistimeinthelabwithgovernmentservice/DuringhistenureasahighleveladministratorattheUSD
37/epartmentofDefenseAdvancedResearchProjectsAgencyARPALicklid/erwaschargedwithfundingawidearrayofprojectsrelatingtomilitaryapplications/ButhemadesurethatwithinthisrolehewasalsofunnelingsupportandsecuringgovernmentfundingforthosewhoformedthecoreoftheAquariangenerationinthe1960sand1970s/Thislaterdedicat/iongrewdirectlyoutofLicklidersownresearch/OnceLickliderconcentratedonthesymbioticcommunicationbetwe
38/enhumanandmachinehebegantoextendhisthinkingtoincludecommunicationbetweenthemachinesandbyextensiontheusers/In1962heonlyhalfjokinglyreferredtot/hisconceptastheIntergalacticComputerNetwork/Lickliderwasthinkingthroughtheoverallculturalimplicationsofthecomputerifitsimulatedthehumancapacitiesofcommunicationandsymbioticrelationshipswithothermedia/WewillreturntothesethemeswiththeAquarian/sbutbeforethatthe
39/rearethePlutocratstocontendwith/ThePlutocratsTwoMenNamedThomasJWatson/Think/ThomasJWatsonSr/Ourfutureisunlimited/ThomasJWatsonJr/Therearefewcompaniesthathavebeenaroundsincethenineteenthcenturyfewerstillthathavebeenatthefore/frontofinformationtechnologyformostofthattimeandonlyahandfulthatarecapitalizedinthebillionsofdollars/TheInternationalBusinessMachinesCorporationbetterknownasIBMisallofthisandmo
40/re/WestartedbytalkingaboutthePatriarchsandtheirvisionsbutitisvit/altorealizethatfordecadeswhatgeneralpublicconsciousnessaboutcomputingtherewasborelittleofthePatriarchsstamp/Ifyouweretoaskpeoplein1959whotheimportantplayersincomputingsdecidedlyshorthistoryweretheywouldfocusmoreonthecommercialcompaniesthatw/eresupplyingcomputerstobusinessandindoingsochangingthewaythattheUnitedStatesandtherestofthewor
41/ldwastodobusiness/ThesefirmsincludedcompanieslikeDigitalEquipmentCorporationDECandHewlettPackardHPbutworldwideaboveallotherstherewerethebluesuited/legionsofIBM/AndtheywouldthinkofonenamesharedbetweentwomenThomasJ/Watsonseniorandjunior/Theelderhadbuilttheworldsmostformidablemechanicaldataprocessingcompanytheyoungerensuredthatitsdominancecontinuedinthedigitalera/Betweenthemtheyestablish/edthecommerc
42/ialpracticeandcultureofcomputingfordecades/IBMresultedfromthemergerofagroupofcompaniestheoldestofwhichwasfoundedin1888thatproducedthemachinesthatrationalizedstreamlinedandquantifiedUS/andthenglobalbusiness/Itmanufacturedscalesti/mecardsandmostfamouslypunchcardtabulatorsthatallowedforthestorageandanalysisofeverlargeramountsofmanufacturingdistributionandsalesdata/By1915ayoungsalesmannamedThomasJ/Wat
43/sonhadrisenfromaregionalofficetotakeoverthecompanythennamedtheCompute/rTabulatingRecordingCorporation/WithinadecadehehadchangedthenameofthecompanytotheInternationalBusinessMachinesCorporationandencouragedtheuseofitsacronymIBM/WatsonSrsfamousmottowasThinkbutthedrivingethosofthecompanywasSell/Inanerawhenthearto/fsellingwasreveredasbeingnexttogodlinessWatsonwasknownastheworldsgreatestsalesmanaswellas
44/beingoneoftheworldsrichestpeople/WatsonSrunderstoodthatIBMhadtokeepitseyeoncomputersandhelptoshapetheirfuture/DuringtheSecondWorldWarthecompanycofunded/thedevelopmentofHarvardUniversitysMarkIcomputerandIBMscientistsandengineersestablishedandsolidifiedlinkageswiththemilitarythatbecameincreasinglycriticaltothecompanyinthepostwarera/BythetimethatWatsonssonThomasWatsonJr/waspositionedtotakeove/rthecom
45/panyintheearly1950sthebiggestquestiontheybothfacedwashowtoconfrontthechangesthatdigitaltechnologieswouldhaveontheircompany/Shouldtheyinvestindigitalcomputingorwouldthisundercuttheprofitsontheirflagshipmechanicalcalculatorsandpapercar/dtabulatingmachines/WatsonSrscontributionwasessentiallytohandoverthecompanytohissonattheverymomentwhenthisdecisionbecamecentraltoIBMsfortunes/InsodoingWatsonSr/ensure
46/dthatthecomputerwouldmakeitoutofthelaboratoryandintobusinessesworldwidewit/hthehugeinfrastructureofsalesandsupportthatIBMhadalreadybuiltupduringtheprewaryearsandthepostwarboom/ItwastoThomasJWatsonJrscreditthathenegotiatedthesmoothtransitionbetweenthetworegimesatIBM/Inthe1950shemanagedthedevelopmentandreleaseofthe6/50seriesofcomputerswhichwasthefirstmajorcommercialcomputingendeavor/Hemadesurethatth
47/eywereengineeredtotaketheirinputfromIBMsalreadyestablishedbaseofpunchcardprocessors/DoingthisensurednotonlybackwardcompatibilitybutalsohelpedtolockinIBMscon/sumerbaseasthecompanymoveditselfanditscustomersfromthemechanicaltotheelectronicera/ThePlutocratswhosegenerationmadeabusinessoutofcomputingoftenfacedhardchoicesbetweenthetechnologicalinnovationsthattheirengineerscouldproduceandthewillingness/or
48/unwillingnessoftheircustomerstoadapttothesechanges/Withthe650seriesdecisionIBMmadesuretograndfatherinasmuchofitspreexistingdataprocessinginfrastructureasitcould/AdecadelaterWatsonJrbrokewiththismodeldeterminingthatthearchitecturesofthecom/putersIBMhadbeensellingthroughoutthe1950swerenotgoingtoberobustenoughtohandlethenextgenerationofneedsandcapacities/Watsoninvestedahugeamountofpersonnelandfinanci
49/alresourcesintheSystem/360serieswhichwasnotbackwardcompatiblemeaningthathewasta/kingahugerisk/FortuneputhimonitscoverwiththeheadlineThe5BillionGamblequestioningwhetherhiscustomerswouldfollowhimintothenextstepofcomputingashesawit/HiscustomersdidfollowWatsonsleadhoweverandtheSystem/360isconsiderednotonlyoneofthebiggestga/mblesinbusinesshistorybutalsooneofthebest/Sopowerfullydidhisplanworkthatwithina
50/decadeIBMwasbeingsuedbytheUSDepartmentofJusticeforantitrustviolationsandBigBluewasoftenreviledasasoullesstechnocraticmonster/Mainframeswhichcametobedominatedbyfa/miliarnameslikeDECHoneywellandmostimportantIBMwerecentrallyorganizedandhierarchicalmaintainedandcontrolledbyanelitecorpsofdataprocessingprofessionalsmidcenturymandarinsservicingbusinessmilitaryandscientificclientele/Dataentrywascommonlydo
51/ne/throughpunchcardsimprintedwiththewarningDoNotFoldSpindleorMutilategoodadvicebutalienatingforusers/Thaterasmachineswerealphanumericwithnovisualcomputingandthebarestminimumofgiveandtakebetweenusersandmachines/Mostpeopleexperiencedcomputersthr/oughintermediariesandthesoftwarewasoftenentirelyopaquetoeveryoneexcepttheprogrammersandinputoperators/OtherPlutocratsincludeGordonMooreoneofthecofoundersoft
52/hedominantchipmakerIntel/Hisinsistencethatcomputerprocessingpowerwoulddoubleandthepr/icewouldhalfeveryeighteenmonthsbecameknownasMooreslawandbecameanotherofthecrucialmemesforcommercialcomputing/Mooreslawmeansthatprocessingheavyoverlyexpensiveconceptsyoudeveloptodaywillstillbefeasiblenextyearwhenthepowergoesupandthepricecome/sdown/MoorewastoestablishanotherofthememesthatthePlutocratscontributedtoth
53/ecultureofcomputingthespinoff/MooreandPhilipNoyceanotheroftheIntelcofounderswerebothmembersofthefamousTraitorousEightwhoquitworkingwiththeincreasinglyunstableWilliamS/hockleyatthepioneeringShockleySemiconductorLaboratorytosetuptheirowncompetingcompanyFairchildSemiconductors/MooreandNoycespunoffagaintofoundIntelwhichhasinspiredliterallytensofthousandsofentrepreneurswithdreamsofestablishingtheirownc
54/omputer/companiesandbecomingthePlutocratsoftheirgenerationavariationoftheparticipationmeme/EventhoughIBMscientistswonmultipleNobelPrizesandTuringAwardsintheheydayofBigBluethereasonthatwelooktotheWatsonsisthattheytookthedreamsofthePatriarchsandturne/dthemintomarketableproducts/WhatmarkedtheeraofthePlutocratswasastolidreliabilitythequarterlyprojectionsofthesalesmanagerratherthanthevisionoftheinvento
55/r/Theircontributiontothememeofsimulationwassimpletheywantedcomputerstomimicothercommodifi/ableproductsmuchliketheWatsonsmixtureofensuringcustomerbuyinsandtheoccasionalwillingnesstogambleoncompletediscontinuitiesmarksthemasthemodelswhetheracknowledgedornotfortheHustlerswhowouldfollowintheirwake/ThePlutocratswerenothomogeneousbyan/ymeans/TheyincludedauthenticengineeringgeniuseslikeMoorehardcharginge
56/ntrepreneurslikeHewlettandPackardandconsummatesalespeopleliketheWatsons/Theycouldbeenthusiasticrisktakersorbluesuitedorganizationmen/Theydidtheirbesttolockincustomerswithp/roprietarysolutionsbutwouldgambleonentirelynewmodelsiftheyfelttheycouldsucceed/TheybuiltthebusinessofcomputingyetwereneverparticularlycommittedtothedreamsthatanimatedthePatriarchs/DuringthePatriarchsascendencyhoweverthevisionari
57/eswereoutthe/rewonderingwhycomputerscouldnotsimulatedifferentkindsofmodels/Theyhadakindoferoticsofsimulationinmindthepleasureofdoingsomethingandthendoingeverythingwiththesemachines/Thepossibilitiesseemedendless/IcallthenextgenerationtheAquariansandtheyw/erelikepainterseyeingablankcanvasorsculptorscirclingablockofmarble/TheAquariansDouglasEngelbartandAlanKay/In20or30yearsyoullbeabletoholdinyourhand
58/asmuchcomputingknowledgeasexistsnowinthewholecityoreventhewholeworld/DouglasEngelbart/Itsnotth/etechnologythatlives/Itsthedreamthatlives/AlanKay/DougEngelbartworkedintheworldthatthePlutocratsruledbutmadetheworldinwhichwelive/HedrewinspirationfromthevisionsofthePatriarchsandtheyfundedhiscampaignagainstthecultureofthePlutocrats/Asanarm/yradiooperatorinthePhilippinesjustafterWorldWarIIEngelbartreadBu
59/shsseminalarticleAsWeMayThinkanditsvisionsustainedhimallthewaythroughgraduateschoolandintohisfirstpositionsinCalifornia/Engelbartdevotedhislifetodevelopinganewwaytothinkaboutco/mputersnotdataprocessingmachinesasperthePlutocratsbutinsteadaugmentersofthehumanintellect/HedidhismajorworkofthisperiodattheStanfordResearchInstituteSRInearStanfordUniversitywherehewassupportedbyfundingfromLicklidersDARPAbe
60/causeLickliderund/erstoodthatEngelbartsworktookthemodesofparticipationandlinkedthemtothegoalofaugmentation/Engelbartsvisionharnessedcomputerstoaugmenthumanintelligenceinordertotacklethebiggestquestionsthathumansfacewhatwerelatertobecalledwickedproblemsorthos/ethataresociallyandenvironmentallycomplexrangingfromeradicatingpovertytoplanningcitiestodeterminingwhatconstitutesagoodlifewelllived/Engelbar
61/tsethimselfthegrandestsimulationobjectiveofallnotsimplysimulatingasinglemindbutinsteadtryingtosimul/atethebestofgroupthinkingandactionleadingtothetwinedmemesofsymbioticparticipation/OfcoursemanypeoplebothwithinandoutsideofcomputersciencehavebeenconcernedwithwickedproblemsbutfewofthemeverhadthekindofimmediatepublicimpactthatEngelbartdidin1/968/Forthatwastheyearthathegavethemotherofalldemosapublicdi
62/splayofhisinnovationsandvisiontoanaudienceofhispeersalongwithayoungergenerationthathewouldinspire/AtSRIEngelbarthaddevelopedasystemfeaturingscalingwindowsgraphicaluserinterfaceslive/videoteleconferencingandhypertext/Anewinputdeviceofhisinventionanoddlookingthingthatcouldcontrolelementsanywhereonthescreendirectedallofthesewindowsandoperations/EngelbartspatentapplicationreferredtoitasanXYpositionind
63/icatorforadisplaysyste/m/Itfeaturedawoodenshellsmallenoughtobecuppedinonehandwhichcoveredtwometalwheelsandthewholeassemblagewasconnectedtothecomputerbyalongthincordthatlookedabitlikeatail/InhonorofthetailEngelbartandhisteamcalleditamouse/Thiswasthesystemthatheset/upforalivedemonstrationin1968teleconferencingfromSanFranciscotoPaloAltoshowingthetextprocessingandelectronicmailfunctionsinseparatescala
64/blewindowsanddoingallofthisinrealtimewithahugeprojectorborrowedfromtheUSDepartmentofDefense/Inaworldofco/mputersdominatedbyalphanumericinputandoutputcommandlineinterfacesandthebarestminimumofgiveandtakebetweenusersandmachinesEngelbartsdemowasarevelationameldingofsimulationandparticipation/Rememberthatallofthisinterfacingwastakingplaceoveradist/anceofthirtymiles/IftheSRIdemowasnotthefullfledgeddawn
65/ingoftheAgeofAquariancomputingitcameascloseascomputerscienceandengineeringwereevergoingtocome/Inthe1960speopleweretryingtogroupavaguelyhopefulsetoffeelingsandinstinctsthatpeoplecouldcome/togetherpeacefullytomaketheworldabetterplaceandthattechnologiesfromcommunicationtodrugstospacetravelwerecombiningtoproduceaneweraorwhatcametobeknownastheAgeofAquarius/ThetermAquariancametorepresentmuchthatwashopef
66/ulifnotalwayspracticalabout/thetimes/EngelbartsdemoandtheworkoftheotherAquariansinthe1960sand1970smaybelittleknownbutitwascentraltothetransformationofthesoulofthemachine/Theystrovetohumanizedecentralizeandpersonalizecomputersandwereopposedtovirtuallyeveryaspectofthewa/ythatthePlutocratshadcommodifiedandcorporatizedcomputing/WhattheAquariansfeltwasmissinginthePlutocraticerawasthesensethathumanshadi
67/nventedanewallynotjustforthebattlefieldlaborofficebutinmakingabettermorecreativelife/WhenpeopletalkaboutEngel/bartspresentationoftheNLSoNLineSystemasthemotherofalldemoswhattheymeanisthatsomethingabouttherealityofthethingtherealtimemanipulationthenewinputdeviceandthesheertotalityofitallchangedthecultureofcomputingrightthenandthereatleastintheheadsof/thosewhocouldunderstanditsimplications/Oneofthose
68/bestandbrightestwastheyoungAlanKay/ApolymathwhohadsupportedhimselfingradschoolbyplayingjazzguitarKayhadneverfeltcomfortableintheconfinesofacademia/HehadtraveleddowntotheBayAreafromtheUniversi/tyofUtahwherehewasagradstudentinthelabofIvanSutherland/OfallthepeopleIgrouptogetherasAquariansperhapstheleastlikelytoaccedetothelabelmightbeSutherland/Hewasastraightlacedengineerwhoafterhisgreatestcontributio
69/nstothefielddevelopedaprofitable/companyworkingalmostexclusivelyonmilitarycontracts/Sutherlandbuttoneddownthoughhemayhavebeenwasthefigurewhodevelopedthevisualsideofcomputingwhoopenedupcomputingtotherightbrainworldofartistsanddesignersandwhocraftedrealtimeresponsivevisualiz/ationtechnologies/ThesemassivebreakthroughsweresomindexpandingthatIfeelforcedtoshoehornhimintothisgroup/WithasoftwarecalledSke
70/tchpadwhichsimulatedaswellassurpassedthevisualcapacitiesandproductivityofpaperandpenSutherlandcreatedthefirstrobus/tandresponsivecomputergraphicsworkstation/Sutherlandwasadamantthatwhilehecouldsimulatepencilonpaperhissystemopeneduphithertoimpossiblemicrodrawingbecausethesystemallowedyoutoplaywithscaleandzoomandmacrovisualizationbecauseyoucouldzoomoutand/createdocumentsessentiallywithoutborders/How
71/evertheProvoUtah–basedSutherlandmighthavefeltaboutthegoingsoninthefarmoreAquarianSanFranciscoBayareaforKayitwaslikecominghome/Therehefoundacommunitythatappreciatedhisapproachtoprogrammingespeciall/yhispersonaldesiretodevelopcomputersthatregularpeopleandchildrenespeciallychildrencouldplaywith/EngelbartsdemogaveKayandotherslikehimproofonthegroundthattheirideasnotonlycouldworktechnicallybutalsothatth
72/eycouldexciteanewkindofpassionforcomp/uting/WithinfifteenyearsKayhadextendedEngelbartsaugmentationideasintotherealmsofsoftwarehepioneeredobjectorientedprogrammingrefinedthegraphicaluserinterfaceandtheEthernet/KaywasacentralfigureinthedevelopmentofXeroxPARCsAltairpersonalcompute/ramachinethattheexecutivesatcorporateheadquartersthreethousandmileseastofPaloAltocouldnotfigureouthowtomarket/Thetensionb
73/etweenthesuitsinthecorporatesuitesontheEastCoastandthetechsintheirexperimentallabsontheWestCoastwasakeyconflictintheAqu/arianperiodandthelegacyofthosebattlescontinuestoanimatethediscoursesofSiliconValleytothisday/EvenifKayhadnotaccomplishedallofthishewouldberememberedforcreatingtheconceptofpersonaldynamicmedia/KayandateamatPARCcreatedaconceptualprototypethey/calledtheDynabookandsetamarkforallthela
74/ptopspersonalcomputertabletsandmobilecomputingdevicestocome/Kayforesawtheintegrationofdigitalmodesofcreativityintoeveryaspectofhumanlifefromtheearliestlearningexperiencestothemostadvancedscientificexpe/riments/HewaslikeanumberofotherbrilliantscientistsinvolvedintheAquarianmomentwholookedtochildrentofindinspirationanddrewfromthepioneeringworkofSwissdevelopmentalpsychologistandpedagogicaltheoristJea
75/nPiaget/Thesecomputerscientistscreatedwhat/Ihavecometocallakinderkult/Manyscientistsfeelcutofffromtherestofhumanitywhichforlackoftrainingoraptitudedoesnotmasteradvancedmathematicalreasoning/TheAquarianssawinthecomputerawaytobridgethisgapespeciallyinregardtochildren/Inadditionpeoplel/ikeKayfeltthatthecomputerwouldofferboththemselvesandchildrenawaytotaptheunfetteredcreativityweseeintheyoung/Thisemph
76/asisonpedagogyandplaystimulatedtheAquarianstoadvocateforthewidestpossiblepenetrationofthesetechnologiesintosocietypushingthe/memeofparticipationevenfurther/TheAquariangenerationlikethePatriarchonebeforeithasbeenforthemostpartforgotten/Thatisnottosaythathistorianshardcorehackersandtheoccasionaltechnologistortechoartisthavenotdrawninspirationfromtheirexamplebutinte/rmsofgeneralrecognitiontheydonotra
77/tenearlyashighinthepantheonofculturalheroesastheyshould/Thereasonforthisispainfullysimpletheydidnotcapitalizeontheirgenius/EngelbartinventedthemouseandSRIsoldthelicenseforitforfortythousanddollars/Kaywaspar/toftheteamthatcreatedtheAltothefirstmarketablepersonalcomputerbutXeroxcouldneverquitefigureouthowtosellit/OtherslikeTedNelsonthemostexplicitlyAquarianofthemallhavebeentakenascautionarytalesbyth
78/osewhofollowed/Thetechnologywastherethedreamofp/articipationwasnotjustaliveitwasthrivingbuttheAquarianscouldntsellittothemasses/AndsellingtothemassesisonewaytoberememberedatleastintheUnitedStates/SellingtothemassesiswhatHustlerswereborntodo/TheHustlersSteveJobsandBillGates/Whocanaffordto/doprofessionalworkfornothing/BillGates1976/Realartistsship/SteveJobs1983/IfJCRLickliderandDouglasEngelbartareob
79/scuretalismansevenamongthebestinformedcomputerusersSteveJobsandBillGatesareiconictriumphalnerds/Jobsathisheightwasperhapsthemosti/ntriguingbusinesspersonintheworldandoneofthefewpeopletohavebuiltmultibilliondollarcompaniesintwodifferentindustrieswithApplecomputersandPixaranimatedfilms/GateswastheCEOofMicrosoftandascabdriversfromCalcuttatoCancúncantellyouforyearstherich/estpersonintheworld/Morethana
80/nyoneelseJobsandGateswereresponsibleformakingthecomputerpartofpeoplesdailylivespersonalizingthetechnologiesandchangingthewaysinwhichinformationfunctionsasadrivingforceincontemporarycommerceaswellasculture/Jobsan/dGatesstartedoutwhenpersonalcomputingthatideaadvancedbyLickliderthePatriarchandKaytheAquarianwastheprovinceofatinygroupofobsessedhobbyists/Itwasabusinessbutonewithasmallermarketthanflyfish
81/ing/Asteenagersinthe1970sJobsandGateswerepartofthiss/mallgroupofhobbyistswhopurchasedkitstomakesimpleprogrammablecomputerstouseandplaywithathome/JobsalongwithSteveWozniakweremembersofthebestknowngroupoftheseenthusiaststheHomebrewComputerClubofCupertinoCalifornia/Gateswhohadbeenprogrammingsinc/ehefoundhimselfabletogetaccesstoaDECmainframeinhighschoolwasalreadywritingsoftwareprofessionallywhilehewas
82/astudentatHarvard/JobsandGatesalongwiththeircollaboratorsandcompetitorsinthemid1970swerepositionedatafulcrumpointwhenadiversionturnedi/ntoabusiness/WhatmadethembothrichandpowerfulwastheirabilitytomeldtheattributesofthetwogenerationsthatprecededthemfusingthehardheadedbusinesslogicofthePlutocratswiththevisionaryfuturityoftheAquarians/JobsandGateshaveaninterestingcompetitiveh/istoryleapfroggingeachot
83/herinthequesttoachieveinsanegreatnessinJobsswordsandglobalmarketpreeminenceforGates/JobsandhispartnerWozniakwerethefirsttomaketheleapfromhobbyiststoindustrialistswiththeirApplecomputerslaunchedin1976/ItwastheAppleIIt/hatreallybrokeloosein1977attractingahugeuserbaseandestablishingJobsandWozniakasthefirstpubliclylaudedmillionairewhizkidsofSiliconValley/AsimportantastheirearlysuccesswiththeAppleIIwas
84/howevertheirgreatestimpactcamesevenyearslaterwhentheytook/theinspirationofpeoplelikeEngelbartandKayandcreatedamassmarketpersonalcomputerthatsetanewstandardforparticipation/Beforewegettothatweneedtoreturnto1976andmovefromSiliconValleytoNewMexicowhereGatesandhispartnersincludingformerHarvardfriendsP/aulAllenandSteveBallmerwerewritingprogramsfortheAltaircomputer/ThatwastheyearthatGateswroteafamouslet
85/tertothehobbyistcommunitycomplainingaboutrampantsoftwaretheft/Heclaimedthatnothingwouldpleasehimmorethanestablishingabusinessmodelforthecom/munitythatwouldallowhimtohiretenprogrammerstowritesoftwarefulltimeforthehobbyistmarket/JustfouryearslaterMicrosoftwasprofitablywritingclosedsourcecodeforavarietyofplatformsandGateswasapproachedbyIBMthenthebiggestcomputercompanyintheworldtos/upplyastableoperati
86/ngsystemforBigBluesnewlineofpersonalcomputers/ItwasatthispointthatIBManditsintellectualpropertylawyersenteredintowhatisnowuniversallyseentohavebeentheworstcontractinthehistoryofglobalbusiness/Gatesthesonofarenownedintelle/ctualpropertylawyernegotiatedacontractinwhichMicrosoftlicensedtheoperatingsystemtoIBMratherthansellingitoutright/MicrosoftwasalsofreetolicenseMSDOSandrelatedapplicationsoftwareto
87/anyothercompanythatproducedcomputers/Therewasanexplosionofpers/onalcomputerclonespiggybackingonIBMssuccessbutMicrosoftwithnohardwaremanufacturingcostsandalockonthedominantoperatingsystemturnedouttobethebigwinner/WithinadecadeMicrosoftwasworthmorethanIBMandGateswastherichestpersonintheworld/Gatesdefeate/dthePlutocratsattheirowngameandascendedintotheirranks/EvenadjustedforinflationtheWatsonswereneve
88/rasrichasGatesbecame/GateshasbeenadmiredforhisstrategyandcondemnedforhisruthlessnessbutmuchlikethePlutocratsbeforehimhewasneverdefinedbyvision/S/teveJobsthecofounderandCEOofAppleontheotherhandhasbeenknowntocreatearealitydistortioneffectaroundhimselfbecauseoftheintensityofhisvisionforcomputing/HeworkedforearlyelectronicgamespioneerAtariinthelate1970sandvisitedXeroxPARCwherehesawthewo/rkinfusedwithE
89/ngelbartandKaysAquarianvision/ThisspiritresonatedwithJobswhoatonepointhadtakenapersonalpilgrimagetoIndiaandlivedinanashram/ButevenmoresothememeofparticipationenteredhisheadonthosevisitstoPARC/TheAppleIIreleasedin1977wasuniquei/nhavingagraphicscapabilityandasoundboardbuiltin/Herewasthefirstmajorcomputerforthemassesdesignedfromthestartasamultimediamachine/TheseAppleIIsbecamethedefactomachinesinclass
90/roomsaroundthecountryandwithoutadoubtpreparedagenerationofcomputeru/sersforwhatwastocome/Jobsunderstoodthatthegraphicaluserinterfacewouldopenupawholenewrangeofapplicationstononexpertusersbutevenmorewouldexpandthatusercommunityexponentially/TheMacintoshreleasedin1984broughtthenextlevelofintegrationofsoundima/geandmotionintopersonalcomputing/IthadbuiltinhypertextcapabilitiesthescalingwindowsoftheEng
91/elbartsfameddemoandofcourseitmadethemouseaubiquitousdevice/ThereisnodoubtingthatJobstracedhisheritagetotheAquariansandthatinbestingIBMatitsowngameGat/estranscendedtheWatsons/ButthedevelopmentandreleaseofMicrosoftWindowstoreplacethecommandlineDOSwasaninterestingcaseofonegenerationsimulatingitself/UScourtsruledlongagothattherewasnocopyrightinfringementofWindowsontheMacoperatingsystemandcon/trarytomy
92/ththerewasneveramemowhereGatesputonpaperMakeitliketheMacyetlegalismsasideApplewasmoreofaninnovatorandMicrosoftwasmoreofanacquirer/ForalltheirdifferencesthoughtheHustlerswillblendtogetherinhistorysassessmentandthedifferencesbetweenJ/obsandGateswillseemasslimtopeopleinfiftyyearsasthedistinctionsbetweenJohnD/RockefellerandAndrewCarnegieseemtoustoday/WhattheHustlerswereabletodoregardlessofwhodidwhatfi
93/rstandwithwhatmotiveswastoapplythemarketingsavvyandmanagerialbrillianceo/fthePlutocratstodisseminatetoahugeworldwidepopulationtheinnovativespiritandinventivegeniusoftheAquarians/Overthenextthreedecadesbyhookorbycrookthroughmediocreupgradesandteethgnashingconvergenceheadachesmoreandmorepeoplefoundthemselvesinposs/essionsofmachinesthathadevergreatercomputingpowerwhichtranslatedintoaneverincreasingab
94/ilitytosimulatetheothermediadevicesthattheyalreadypossessedbuthereintegratedintoanevermoreseamlessatleastintheorysystem/Thatwasallwellandgoodbutevenamidth/istransformationoneofthekeymemesofthePatriarchsandAquarianswasmissing/Whatgoodwasallthiscomputingpowerandcreativepotentialifpeoplecouldnotshareitwitheachotheriftheycouldnotsimulatethatwondrousnineteenthcenturyinformationappliancethetelephon/e/In
95/otherwordswhowouldturnthisinstalledbaseofatomizedpersonalcomputersintoacommunicationsystem/Whowouldlinkthemtogethertosharetheirentertainmentsandexperiencesandevenpoolresourcestotacklethosewickedproblems/TheHostsofcourse/TheHostsTimBerne/rsLeeandLinusTorvalds/Youaffecttheworldbywhatyoubrowse/TimBernersLee/Softwareislikesexitsbetterwhenitsfree/LinusTorvalds/AfterthetriumphofAppletheMacintoshPixariTu
96/nestheiPhoneandtheiPaditishardtorememberthatJobsalsohadhisshareoffailures/Bur/iedinhiscorporatebiographyisNeXTComputertheshortlivedcompanythathefoundedafterleavingAppleinthemid1980s/ThebeautifullydesignedNeXTCubewasacommercialdisaster/LikethenowforgottenAppleLisathepredecessortotheMacintoshitwastooexpensivetodevelopm/orethanatinynichemarketamongresearchersandacademics/ButtheNeXTCubewastomarkatrans
97/formationinthewaythatpeopleandthemarketinteractednotwithpersonalbutratherwithinterpersonalcomputers/FromthebeginningJobsandhisteamdesignedNeXTCubestocommunicat/ewithotherNeXTCubes/HerewasamachinethatnetworkedinwaysthatthePatriarchshadforetolddecadesbeforeandthatEngelbartandKayhadspenttheinterveningyearsrefiningwithobjectorientedprogrammingsharedworkenvironmentsandintegratedvisualizationandaudiotoo
98//ls/Inotherwordsthiswasamachinethatwasdoingmuchofwhatpeopleexpectedoftheirmachinesaftertheyear2000butfifteenyearsearlier/Inthelate1980sinaphysicslaboratoryinGenevaaBritishscientistworkedonaNeXTCubetestingitscapacitytodealwithoneofthemainissu/esthatheconfrontedinhisfield/Physicslikeitssubjectfrequentlyseemstomoveatthespeedoflightbutthemechanismforpublishingresearchviapaperjournalsisoftenmaddeningly
99/slow/InanefforttospeedupthetransferofinformationbothwithinandoutsidehislabBernersL/eestartedthinkingaboutelectronicpublishing/Hehadexperienceworkingwithelectronictypesettingsystemsatanearlierjobandhadbeenthinkingabouthypertextsystemsformorethanadecade/In1989hewroteapaperaboutcombiningavisualhypertextualsystemwiththecommun/icationprotocolsoftheInternettolinkthesedocumentstogetheroverthenetwork/Bern
100/ersLeepursuedadoublegoalofsimulationhewantedhypertexttosimulatethecommunicativityofnetworksandhewantednetworkstosimulatethevisualizedlinkagesofhypertext/Twoyearslat/erin1991onaNeXTStepserverhebuiltjustsuchasystemanduploadedthefirstpageontowhathecalledtheWorldWideWeb/HerewasLickliderthePatriarchsIntergalacticNetworkmeldedtotheAquarianNelsonsunrealizeduniversalpublishingdatabaseXanadu/Itisworththeef
101/fortt/odecodewhatacrypticsetoflettersmeans/FirstitiscalledaUniversalResourceLocatorbetterknownasaURLanditisalinguisticpointertoasetofnumbersthatitisassignedtonamely00010012/SecondhttpstandsforHyperTextTransferProtocolwhichtiestogetherthelinkingfu/nctionsofhypertextswiththecommunicationfunctionsoftheInternet/Infoisthegrailhereasthepagecontainssomethingthatonepersonorgrouphasuploadedandthatanotherpe
102/rsonorgroupwilldownload/Nextcernisthelaboratorywhereitwascreatedwhichatthattimehadagrea/terdensityofInternetconnectionsthananyotherlocaleinEuropeandchisanabbreviationforthenameConfoederatioHelveticawhichistheLatinnameforSwitzerland/Thisfirstpagetoldpeoplehowtosetuptheirownpageandthenlinktootherpeopleandforatimewasalsothefirstd/irectorytotheWebasBernersLeewouldlistthenewpagesaspeoplesenthimlinkstot
103/hem/Theeffectofthiswasviralandglobal/TherehadbeenwaysofdistributingandsearchingdocumentsviatheInternetbeforelikenowobscureprotocolsTelnetGopherandFetchbutBernersLeehadcr/eatedthefirstintuitivegraphicaluserinterfacefortheInternet/AndhewasadamantfromthestartthatproducingmaterialfortheWebshouldbeaseasyasaccessingit/Inthishewasapowerfuladvocatefortransparencycooperationandproductiveinteraction/Likethe
104/Aquariansh/esawthisworkasagiftandheofferedallofthisfreeofroyaltiesforhisinventionsandpatentsmeaningthatanybodyoreverybodycoulddeveloptheWeb/AfewyearslaterMarcAndreesenandagroupofotherWebdeveloperslaunchedtheirownbrowserknownasNetscapekickstartingtheWe/bbubbleofthemidtolate1990s/ThisignitedafrenzyofwealthbuildingearnedBernersLeeaknighthoodandencouragedotherwisesanepeopletoclaimthattheinventionofthe
105/Webhadmorepotentialthanthediscoveryoffire/HyperboletobesurebutthereisnodoubtthattheWebwastra/nsformingtheculturemachine/The1999GoldenNicathemostprestigiousawardinthemediaartsgeneratedcontroversywhenthecommitteedecidedtogiveitjointlytoaprogrammerandtheoperatingsystemhedeveloped/HowandwhythejurorsatAustriasArsElectronicaFestivaldecid/edtosohonortheFinnishcomputerscientistTorvaldsapersonwhohadnevercl
106/aimedtobeanartistandLinuxacollectionofcoderatherthananartworkwillbesomethingthatwewillreturntoattheendofthissection/ThejurysstatementacknowledgedtheincongruityyetarguedthatTo/rvaldshissoftwareandthecommunitythatcreateditbirthedanaestheticshowinghowsomethingcanbebuiltontheNetthroughanintentionalbutnotnecessarilydirectdescription/TounderstandwhyTorvaldsissoimportanttothememeofparticipationwehavetore
107/visitthePlutocr/ats/InthefirsttwentyyearsorsoofcomputingafterWorldWarIIwheninstitutionsboughtmainframesfromvendorslikeIBMandDECthesoftwareonthesemachinescamewithcompletedocumentationofthesourcecode/Therewerefarfewerapplicationsinthosedaysandtheuserswerealm/ostbydefinitionexpertsandprogrammersthemselvessoitmadesensetoletthesepeopledeveloptheirownsoftwarefortheirsystems/Inthelate1960sandearlier1970s
108/howeversystemsandsoftwaresweredebundledwhichmeantthatpeoplewerestartingtotreatthesoftwaresascommo/ditiesofintrinsicvalue/Eventuallythisproprietarysoftwarewasseenbymostpeopleastheonlykindofsoftwaretherewasacommoditywithrestrictionsagainstredistributionanopaqueentitythatdidnotmakeitssourcecodeavailableandastabletoolthatuserswerenottomodif/y/Thisshiftmadesensetothecommercialsoftwarevendorsandwithoutq
109/uestioncreatedtherelativelystablesetofplatformsandsoftwaresthatencouragedsmallbusinessesaswellasindividualstofollowtheleadoflargeinstitutionsindigitizingtheirworkandlives/Andofcou/rsefortunesweremadeandlost/Yetthroughoutthe1970sand1980safewkeyfiguressuchasRichardStallmaninparticularfeltthattheearlierethosofopensourcesoftwarewassomethingworthbuildingon/Stallmanwantedtoextendthesenseofscientificcoll
110/egialityandopennesst/hathevaluedinthehackercommunity/SohedevelopedanewoperatingsystemcompatiblewiththeUNIXfamilybutdistinctfromitandmadeitavailabletootherlikemindedprogrammers/InhackerishfashionhechristeneditGNUanacronymfortherecursivephraseGnusNotUnixandin1985/hestartedtheFreeSoftwareFoundationtosupporthisworkandthatofhisgrowingcommunityofcollaborators/IntheGNUManifestoStallmandefinedtheethosoffr
111/eeoropensoftware/1Youhavethefreedomtoruntheprogramforanypurpose/2Youhavefreedomtomodifytheprogramtosui/tyourneeds/Tomakethisfreedomeffectiveinpracticeyoumusthaveaccesstothesourcecodesincemakingchangesinaprogramwithouthavingthesourcecodeisexceedinglydifficult/3Youhavethefreedomtoredistributecopieseithergratisorforafee/4Youhavethefreedomtodist/ributemodifiedversionsoftheprogramsothatthecommunitycanb
112/enefitfromyourimprovements/ThecommunityofdevelopersandusersforGNUwascommittedvocalandproductivebutrelativelysmallrestrictedtoacademiclabsafewdedicatedprofessionalprogrammersworkingoffh/oursandhackersinterestedinfreesoftware/In1991thoughayounggradstudentinFinlandradicallyalteredthelandscapeforcollaborativefreesoftwaredevelopment/TorvaldsdevelopedanewoperatingsystemthathecametocallLinux/Hisgreatinno
113/vationwastorealizethatthe/Internetwouldchangeeverythingabouttheopensource/freesoftwarecommunity/TorvaldsreleasedLinuxinawaythatensuredthatthethousandsandthentensofthousandsofsoftwaredesignershackershobbyistsandassortedotherusers/makerscouldmodifyimproveandaddtothece/ntralLinuxoperatingsystem/AtonepointastudywasdonedemonstratingthatoveronebilliondollarsworthofprogramminghourshadbeendevotedtoLinuxat
114/noorminimalcost/TherewerereasonsthattheapparentgifteconomyofLinuxadvancedasitdid/ForonethingTorvaldsandthec/oregroupofearlyenthusiastsmaintainedatightship/ForanotherbecausethereweresomanypeoplepushingandproddingatLinuxfarmorethancouldeverseetheclosedsourcecommercialcodefromcompanieslikeMicrosoftHPAppleSunandOracleLinuxbecameastablebugfreeoperatin/gsystem/Thismadeitparticularlygoodforpeopleandgroup
115/srunningservers/EveryonefromrenegadehackerstocorporationsthatneededtheutmostinstabilitytogovernmentslikeBrazilandChinathatdidnotwanttobecomeaddictedtoproprietaryMicrosoftsoftwarescametoembr/aceLinux/Itisimportanttoseewhatexpandednetworksbringtoopensourcedevelopment/TheprogrammerEricRaymonddescribesclosedsourcesoftwareastheinformationageequivalentofthecathedralavaststructuredrivenbythechurchandarch
116/itectsevenifittookgenerationst/obuild/Hecontraststhiswithopensourcewhichheseesasabazaarwithtentsgoingupwaresbeinglaidoutreputationsrisingandfallingandtheindividualmerchantsconstantlywranglingwiththecustomersandeachother/Thecathedralisavastandimposingstructurebutifsomethi/nggoeswrongitisbothdifficultandexpensivetofixandinanycasetheremaybenoonelookingattherightplaceinthewallforstructuralflaws/WithLi
117/nuxhoweverallfaultsareheldupforimmediateinspectionandpotentialfixes/RaymondcoinedthephraseGivenenougheyeballsall/bugsareshallow/HecametodubthisLinusslaw/Thereisatendencyintheopensourcemovementtoelidethedifferencesbetweendevelopingsoftwareandmakingotherformsofculture/Thesoftwaremodelisbasedinlargemeasureontheoscillationbetweenproblemsandsolutionsbugsan/dhacks/Thiscanbeagoodwaytohardensoftwareandadd
118/functionalitybutwhenitcomestoartmusicorliteraturetherearedifferentmodesofproductionjudgmentandsuccess/Noteverysphereofproductionisimprovedbycollaborationnorcaneveryaestheticissuebesolvedbytheapp/licationofmoreeyeballsorearlobes/ThemodelofcooperativeopensourceculturalproductionasrepresentedbytheCreativeCommonsmovementhasitsrootsinfreesoftwarealthoughitdiffersinwaysbothlargeandsmall/Forourpurposesth
119/oughitistheCreativeCommonsmodelthat/isatthispointthemostmeaningfulcontributortotheforcesofuploadingasdiscussedearlier/Anothercaveatfreesoftwaredoesnotnecessarilymeancostfree/NeitherStallmannorTorvaldsforbadesellingsoftwarecreatedwiththeirkernelsandcompanieslikeRedHatmadeatidy/sumpackagingandsupportingtheLinuxoperatingsystem/Whatmakessoftwarefreeistheaccesstothesourcecode/Thedecisiontomarketfreesof
120/twareislefttothedevelopersinvolved/OverthepastfewyearstheGNU/Linuxopensourceexpandedandbecamearobustifstilltechnologi/callydauntingalternativetothecopyrightedproprietarysoftwareofbehemothslikeMicrosoftandOraclewhilethemodelofcollaborativecooperativedevelopmentyieldedresultsthatcouldgotoetotoewithestablishedforprofitbusinessmodels/TheSearchersLarryPageSerge/yBrinandOthers/DontBeEvil/Googlecorporate
121/motto/Anysufficientlyadvancedtechnologyisindistinguishablefrommagic/ArthurCClarke/Halfacenturyintothecomputerizationofculturewhateverlinearnarrativesoforiginwehavebeenabletomapoutheredefinitivelybrea/kdown/TheburstingofthedotcombubblewasreminiscentofthedisastrousfateofrailroadcompaniesintheUnitedStatesinthelatenineteenthcentury/Whentheywentbankruptaftertheirowntechnologicalfeverdreamtheylefttwoleg
122/aciesoneshortlivedandtheothervastlymorei/mportant/Thefirstlegacyinvolvedthedefraudedandangryshareholders/Theyareforallbutafewfinancialhistoriestheforgottenvictimsofbadtiminginthebusinesscycle/Theotherlegacyofthatstockbubblewasacontinentconnectedbyrailwithexcesscapacityalongwiththe/meanstobuildtheworldslargestunifiednetworkofproducersandconsumers/Theoriginalentrepreneursandinvestorsinrailroadsmayha
123/velostmillionsbuttheUnitedStatesasawholebenefitedimmeasurablyfromtheirefforts/TheWeb10bubblelaidmuchdarkfiberacrosstheworl/dascompaniesbuiltfarbroadernetworksthantheycouldeveruseprofitablyandafterthecrashothershavesincebenefitedfromthatinfrastructuretorestructurethewaysweconceiveofandengagewiththeInternet/Noonecompanyhassopalpablybenefitedanddefinedthisshifttha/nGooglethesearchalgorithmthatbecamea
124/companyandthenaverbasnotedearlier/Googlewasanintentionalmisspellingofthewordgoogolthemathematicaltermforaonefollowedbytenzeros/ThecompanybecameanetworkedOuroborsthatcreaturefromGreekmythologythatdevoursit/sowntailandencirclestheworld/WhatcofoundersLarryPageandSergeyBrincreatedwasarelentlessinnovationandacquisitionmachinepoweredbyusersandadvertisersalike/TheychallengedtheoldmastersfromMicrosofttoYa
125/hooandinfiltratedeverythingfromlibrariestodes/ktopsenmeshingeveryonefrompornographerstocartographersfromanticorporatebloggerstoCEOs/Yetbythetimetheyaccomplishedallofthistheyhadblurredthelinesbetweensimulationandparticipationandmadepeoplewonderaboutthegoodnessinherentintheircorporatemot/toforsakingevil/TounderstandGoogleitisimperativetounderstandthatthecompanyssuccesswasadividendofthegroundworklaid
126/bytheHosts/ThefirstmonthsafterBernersLeelaunchedtheWorldWideWebin1991therewereonlyafewhundredpagesandafewmonthsafterNetscapewas/launchedin1994afewmillion/ThatsameyeartwoStanfordstudentsstarteduploadingandupdatingtheirfavoritesitesasJerryandDavidsGuidetotheWorldWideWeb/ThetwostudentsJerryYangandDavidFilowentontofoundYahooTheycontinuedtheircommercialventurealongacurat/orialstrategyorganizingdifferen
127/tsitesandpagesunderlargercategories/TheeverdenserlayoutoftheYahoohomepagemadesenseunderthissystemcreatingcategoriesandsubcategoriesforuserstoorientthemselves/YetwhenPageandBrinshowedupatStanfordafewyearslatert/heWebmovedfrommillionstohundredofmillionstobillionsandthenhundredsofbillionsofpagesandthesignificanceofsearchingaswellasthesocalledenginestoperformthesesearchesbecamethedefiningneedoftheera
128/WhatPageidentifiedwasthatitwasnotsimplyimportantto/findsomethingyoureallywantedtoknowwhattheimportancewasofwhatyouhadfound/TherewerefewreliablewaystousemachineintelligencetocreateusablehierarchiesandyoucouldnothireenoughpeopletosiftthroughsomethingasdenselycomplexastheWebby2000/WhatPagedeci/dedtodowastolettheWebitselfrankthepageswithinitcreatingasearchalgorithmthatusedthenumberoflinkstoandfromapag
129/etodetermineitsutilitytousers/Withitsrelentlessconcentrationonuserexperienceandconvenienceandanevermutatingandsophisticatedapproacht/orevenuegenerationGoogleexplodedoveritsfirstdecade/Aswithsomanyofthehistorieswehavebeenexploringthereweremythsoforigin/TheirfirstangelinvestoracofounderofSunMicrosystemswasinarushandafterlookingatPageandBrinsdemosaidInsteadofusdiscussingall/thedetailswhydontIjustwrit
130/eyouacheck/HischeckforhundredthousanddollarswasmadeouttoGoogleInc/alegalentitythatdidnotasyetexistandittookPageandBrinafewmonthsuntiltheywereabletocashithavingraisedclosetoamillionmoreintheinterim/Thecompanysinsist/enceonparticipationisobviousbutGoogleisalsooneofthegreatsourcesofsimulationintheWebn0era/FromthecommercialsimulationsmimickingdesktopapplicationsinordertomovethemintobrowsersasGmailcopi
131/edthebestfeaturesofcommercialemailprogramsandmadethemav/ailableontheWebtothemetasimulationisteffortsofGoogleMapstochartthewholeworldbothcartographicallyandphotographicallyGooglehasembracedsimulationasanattractortoitscoresearchandadvertisingmodel/Thecompanymadeaseriesofconsciouschoicesaboutthedes/ignofitssitebusinessmodelandimage/ForyearsGoogleshomepagefeaturedadesigndegreezeroapproachatextboxandab
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